TIMELINE

01. The Garden of Forking Paths
Jorges Luis Borges, 1941
- Inventor of the concept of a hypertext novel, which can be read in many ways
- Hopscotch (1963) by Julio Cortázar of Argentina is the first example of a hypertext novel

02. As We May Think
Vannevar Bush, 1945
- Organizer of the Manhattan Project and technology visionary. Imagined greater information access, most notably in a "Memex," or personal desk filled with libraries and files of one's life

03. Computing Machinery and Intelligence
Alan Turing, 1950
- Creator of the "Turing Test," which asks the question of whether a computer can trick a person into thinking it's human

04. Men, Machines, and the World About
Norbert Wiener, 1954
- Coined the term "cyber" with "Cybernetics," which studies the "communication and control in the animal and machine." Interested in the social outcomes of being closely associated with new technology

05. Man-Computer Symbiosis
J.C.R. Licklider, 1960
- Head of DARPA (the Defense Advanced Research Projects Agency). Envisioned computer networks and its benefits

06. "Happenings" in the New York Scene
Allan Kaprow, 1963
- Organizer of "Happening" performances which examined the interaction between the audience and performance, and sought to abolish the roles of actor and spectator

07. The Cut-Up Method of Brion Gysin
William S. Burroughs, 1961
- Beat poet and surrealist describes using "cut and paste" (random) editing to invoke subconscious creativity

08. Augmenting Human Intellect: A Conceptual Framework
Douglas Engelbart, 1962
- Inventor of computer interface features (mouse, window, word processor) with the intention of "augmenting the human intellect"

09. Sketchpad: A Man-Machine Graphical Communication System
Ivan E. Sutherland, 1963
- Developer of computer graphics with his Sketchpad system, which allows direct-manipulation for human-computer interaction.

10. The Construction of Change
Roy Ascott, 1964
- Advocate of conneting cybernetics (Wiener) and art, inspiring fields such as digital design/media art.

11. A File Structure for the Complex, the Changing, and the Indeterminate
Theodore H. Nelson, 1965
- Coins the term "hypertext," which he envisions to be complex and reconfigurable structures of information (like a PalmPilot)

12. Six Selections by the Oulipo
Italo Calvino, 1961
- Literary group's sonnet that is written adhering with complex algorithmic techniques, in showing the changing relationship between reader, author, and actual text.

13. The Galaxy Reconfigured & The Medium is the Message
Marshall McLuhan, 1962 and 1964
- Famously remembered for "the medium is the message," meaning the mode of media often overpowers its content. Icon for believing that popular media should be studied, as it has a profound impact on our bodies, abilities, and thought processes.

14. Four Selections by Experiments in Art and Technology
The Pavilion, 1961-72
- Experiments in Art and Technology (E.A.T.) joins art and technology in staging performances (video projection, sonar sounds, installations etc.) in a variety of ways and with collaborators drawn from both artistic and scientific backgrounds.

15. Cybernated Art
Nam June Paik, 1964
- The original video artist who also used performance to help create "always-already history," and reflections on our culture.

16. A Research Center for Augmenting Human Intellect
Douglas Engelbart and William English, 1968
- Demonstration of interactive computing, well received. Helped invent friendly computer tools like the mouse.

17. From Software–Information Technology
Theodore H. Nelson, Architecture Machine Group, and Les Levine, 1970
- Conceptual art+technology exhibition that encouraged public interaction.

18. Constituents of a Theory of the Media
Hans Magnus Enzenberger, 1970
- Believes the media business, or 'consciousness industry' tries to make us accept an unjust society (while making money). To overturn this model we must produce our own, homemade media that shows this bureaucracy and injustice.

19. Requiem for the Media
Jean Baudrillard, 1972
- Response to Enzenberger's essay. Disagrees with the DIY method for media if the medium is unchanged ('transmitter-message-receiver').

20. The Technology and the Society
Raymond Williams, 1972
- Studied 'flow' of material on television and its effects on society, and precisely why we are always framing that question. Technology was created from our societies, and does not simply dictate them.

21. Computer Lib/Dream Machines
Theodor H. Nelson, 1974
- Known as the first book on personal computers, divided into "Computer Lib" side and "Dream Machines." Believed computers should be for personal use, deliberately designed, and be a platform for new media on open publishing networks.

22. Theatre of the Oppressed
Augusto Boal, 1974
- Once jailed in South America, Boal puts on therapeutic interactive performances that overcome the audience/spectator dichotomy.

23. Soft Architecture Machines
Nicholas Negroponte, 1975
- Designed computer software which aided architectural design by managing numeric data spatially with computer graphics and virtual reality to carry out various tasks.

24. From Computer Power and Human Reason: From Judgement to Calculation
Joseph Weizenbaum, 1976
- Invented conversational computer programs, and theorized downsides to new media, especially towards technology that assumed human roles or attributes.

25. Responsive Environments
Myron W. Krueger, 1977
- Known as the father of virtual reality, acknowledged by both the art and scientific worlds. Interested in human-machine interaction, and artificial reality.

26. Personal Dynamic Media
Alan Kay and Adele Goldberg, 1977
- Creators of the Dynabook, precursor to the laptop computer. Envisioned a friendly PC that could be used creatively by everyone, not just professionals.

27. From A Thousand Plateaus
Gilles Deleuze and Felix Guattari, 1980
- Literary machine created "rhizomatic writing" or dualisms such as "if I were using these terms, this is what I would mean."

28. From Mindstorms: Children, Computers, and Powerful Ideas
Seymour Papert, 1980
- Sees the computer as a creative teaching device for children, using Piaget's educational ideals. This philosophy became called "constructionism."

29. "Put-That-There" Voice and Gesture at the Graphics Interface
Richard A. Bolt, 1980
- Developed multimodal interface, which combines speech, sight, and gesture with computer input, advancing computer-individual interaction.

30. Proposal for a Universal Electronic Publishing System and Archive
Theodor H. Nelson, 1981
- Creator of Xanadu archive, connecting documents to one another to create a searchable hierarchy/anarchy of knowledge.

31. Will There be Condominiums in Data Space?
Bill Viola, 1982
- Video artist which challenged notions of the meaning of new media.

32. The Endless Chain
Ben Bagdikian, 1983
- Writes that web culture should foster democratization and diminish hierarchies. However, media companies are slowly turning into a few major conglomerates.

33. Direct Manipulation: A Step Beyond Programming Languages
Ben Shneiderman, 1983
- Writes of a project which aims to eliminate language to convey meaning of objects, and instead uses direct manipulation through a representational interface.

34. Video Games and Computer Holding Power
Sherry Turkle, 1984
- Examined how video games changed people's experiences with the computer, with a focus on the psychological impact.

35. A Cyborg Manifesto: Science, Technology, and Socialist-Feminism in the Late Twentieth Century
Donna Haraway, 1985
- Haraway would rather be a cyborg than a goddess, for the dualisms that are demanded of retreating to an ideal of the past, whereas the cyborg "does not look back."

36. The GNU Manifesto
Richard Stallman, 1985
- Hacker at MIT and free-information supporter who shared software which allowed for users to build on and improve the programs.

37. Using Computers: A Direction for Design
Terry Winograd and Fernando Flores, 1986
- Critics of artificial intelligence, since computers cannot detect the subtleties of human interaction. Advocates of "ontological design" which examines human communication, which could influence computer interaction.

38. Two Selections: The Six Elements and the Casual Relations Among Them, and Star Raiders: Dramatic Interaction in a Small World
Brenda Laurel, 1986 and 1991
- Looked at computing with an influence of ancient texts, such a Aristotle's Poetics and implementing drama and theater on the computer through user interaction.

39. Towards a New Classificaition of Tele-Information Services
Jan L. Bordewijk and Ben van Kaam, 1986
- Examines digital communications and the distinction between the computer as another individual or machine.

40. Mythinformation
Langdon Winner, 1986
- Looks at the computer revolution and the possible social effects, whether technology will have an empowering democratizing force or not, depending on the amount of influence computer/technology companies will be given.

41. From Plans and Situated Actions
by Lucy A. Suchman, 1987
- Critic of the way AI was designed. Believed that abstracted manipulations should be replaced with the more human-like situated action. Described the differences between the interaction amongst humans, and humans with machines.

42. Siren Shapes: Exploratory and Constructive Hypertexts
Michael Joyce, 1988
- Looked at the two types of hypertext environments, "exploratory" and "constructive," examining the Web as compared to hypertext predictions like that of Vannevar Bush. An exploratory hypertext is formerly constructive, and is being viewed by someone other than the creator. A constructive hypertext is one that turns exploratory hypertexts into material that can be used within the constructive hypertext they are always creating. (The web today is more exploratory because users are more capable to create).

43. The Work of Culture in the Age of Cybernetic Systems
Bill Nichols, 1988
- Writes that video games move fetishization from the object onto the process, or interactivity. Raises question of stimulation resulting in war efforts, and using video games to carry out these attacks.

44. The Fantasy Beyond Control
Lynn Hershman, 1990
- First interactive video art installation, giving the viewer a remote and TV to watch a woman, Lorna, also watching a television inside of an apartment. The viewer could then click on items inside the apartment that would lead to individual narratives.

45. Cardboard Computers
Pelle Ehn and Morten Kyng, 1991
- Believed that computer tools greatly influenced the way they could be used, and what could be created using them, so their design must be influenced by the computer user and not just the programmer.

46. The Lessons of Lucasfilm's Habitat
Chip Morningstar and F. Randall Farmer, 1991
- Examines the type of interaction that occurs in multiplaying online games. These networks of communication don't necessarily foster the utopian ideals of their design. Instead, the dynamics reveal the importance of economics and game structure.

47. Seeing and Writing
J. David Bolter, 1991
- Examines how the computer influences our thoughts on print and writing, a subject he calls "remeditation."

48. You Say You Want a Revolution? Hypertext and the Laws of Media
Stuart Moulthrop, 1991
- In order to predict the next step in meditated hyperreality, we must analyze the elements of hypertextuality, or the web.

49. The End of Books
Robert Coover, 1992
- Writing on computers results in a higher quality and structureless style of writing, like the hypertext novel.

50. Time Frames
Scott McLoud, 1993
- Through the comic book format, analyzes the structure of the comic book with elements of new media.

51. Surveillance and Capture: Two Models of Privacy
Philip E. Agre, 1994
- Looks at the way our actions on computers would be changed if everything was being monitored or recorded.

52. Nonlinearity and Literary Theory
Espen J. Aarseth, 1994
- Nonlinear texts, or texts that we read on the computer screen, change the way we read. He compares non-linear with linear texts, and their methods of intake.

53. Nomadic Power and Cultural Resistance
Critical Arts Ensemble, 1994
- Rhizome language and nomad, which are ways in which liberated users can discuss new technologies, have become a means of corporate power.

54. The World-Wide Web
Tim Berner-Lee, Robert Cailliau, Ari Luotonen, Henrik Frystyk Nielsen, and Arthur Secret, 1994
- Overview of the web as today's hypertext system that is able to link people like never before.